- C++ does not use full evaluation of logical expressions

* Each logical expression is evaluated from left to right
* Evaluation stops as soon as the value of the logical expressions can be concluded

(i == 1) && (j > 2)

* if i=5 is false for example, the whole expression will be false independently of whether j > 2 is true or false

(c <= d) || (e == f)

* if c <= d is true for example, the whole expression will be true independently of whether e == f is true or false

- Like in the case of arithmetic expressions, logical expressions are evaluated by applying some operators (relational or logical) before some others

- The following rules apply

- Operators at the same line in the list have the same precedence

- Operations with the same precedence are performed from left to right (like in the case of arithmetic expressions (a/b*c means (a/b)*c)

- Parentheses are used to override the order of evaluation in an expression

x && y || z (logical AND is applied first), x && (y || z) (logical OR is applied first)

- Example: computing final grades

                    +-----------------------+
                    |    Grading Scheme     |
                    +---------------+-------+
                    |Raw score      | Grade |
                    +---------------+-------+
                    |raw >= 90      |   A   |
                    +---------------+-------+
                    |80 <= raw < 90 |   B   |
                    +---------------+-------+
                    |70 <= raw < 80 |   C   |
                    +---------------+-------+
                    |60 <= raw < 70 |   D   |
                    +---------------+-------+
                    |raw < 60       |   F   |
                    +---------------+-------+

- We have seen that we can store the value of an arithmetic expression to a variable

sum=x+y; (x,y,sum may be int, float, double etc.)

- The same is true for logical (or Boolean) expressions: the value of a logical expression can be stored to a (Boolean) variable

result = x > y; (x,y may be int, float, double etc., but result can only be a Boolean variable)

- Boolean variables can have only two values: true or false

- C++ does not have a Boolean data type (other languages, like Pascal for example, do)

- The reason is that a Boolean data type can be implemented using the int data type !!

- Rule: the value 0 represents false and every nonzero value represents true

If x=10 and y=20 in the above example, then result=0

- Logical expressions can then be substituted in the if statements by Boolean variables

- Defining new data types

typedef ExistingTypeName NewTypeName;

- We can define a Bollean datatype as follows

typedef int Boolean;

- By defining the data type Boolean, we make clear for somebody to understand that certain identifiers are Boolean identifiers

- It should be noted that the compiler substitutes (during compilation) the word Boolean with the word int everywhere in the executable (i.e., machine code)

- Combining Boolean variables with logical operators

cond1= x > y;
cond2= x > z;
if (cond1 && cond2)
x=y+z;

- C++ allows programmers to define new data types using the statement typedef

- More examples using Boolean variables

score=(finalScore > 90) && (midtermScore > 90);, dataInvalid=(inputVal == 0);

Testing the state of the I/O stream

- Detecting the fail state when invalid data is provided

cin >> i >> j >> k;
cout << "i: " << i << " j: " << j << " k: " << k;

* if we enter the following data 1234.56 7 89 the input stream will enter the fail state

* The fail state can be detected by checking the value of cin
*If everything went ok, cin has a nonzero value, otherwise, it has the value zero

cin >> i >> j >> k;
if(cin)
cout << "i: " << i << " j: " << j << " k: " << k;
else
cout << "The fail state has been detected !!0;

- Detecting the fail state when trying to open an input file which doesn't exist